Alcohol

An organic substance formed when a hydroxyl group is substituted for a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon. The type of alcohol used in alcoholic beverages, ethanol, derives from fermenting sugar with yeast. After alcohol is ingested, the body converts it to sugar-based fuel. Alcohol acts as a central nervous system depressant, and it may be part of solutions used as preservatives, antiseptics, or medications.

(Structure of alcohol molecule)

Alcohols Preparation

Alcohols are derived from many types of compounds. The alcohol hydroxyl can be converted to many other functional groups. This makes alcohols useful in synthesis.

1.  Hydration or oxidation of alkenes : anti-Markovnikov hydration ( + H2O, H3PO4, 250oC )
2. Oxymercuration of alkene : Markovnikov hydration ( THF, NaBH4)
3. Reduction of carbonyl compound (+NaBH4 , H3O+)  NaBH4 is not sensitive to moisture and it does not reduce other common functional group, so it’s safer to use, easier to handle. Aldehyde → primary alcohol Ketone → secondary alcohol
4. Reduction of carboxylic acid and ester are reduced to give primary alcohols. (LiAlH4, ether) LiAlH4 is used because NaBH4 is not effective.
5. Reduction of carbonyl compound by Grignard Reagents (+RMgX, ether, H3O+) Grignard reagents react with carbonyl compounds to yield alcohols.
6. Reduction of ester by Grignard reagent (+ RMgX, ether )

Ethanol

Ethanol is one of the important alcohols. It is manufactured on a large scale by two main processes :

a.     From sugars and starch by fermentation.

b.     From petroleum fractions by hydration.

Making ethanol by fermentation

Man used this process for thousands of years to make ethanol from sugar and starch. Yeast is added to sugar or starch and left in a warm place for several days in the absence of air. The fermentation process is anaerobic, which means it takes place in the absence of oxygen. Yeast releases biological enzymes, which break down the sugars and starch into glucose. In the fermentation process, the enzyme called zymase slowly decomposes the glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. When the concentration of ethanol formed reaches about 15%, yeast is killed off and the fermentation stops. Hence, it is impossible to produce pure ethanol by natural fermentation. The ethanol is then purified by fractional distillation.

Making ethanol by hydration

This process is called catalytic hydration, the direct hydration of ethene. Ethene is obtained from the cracking of petroleum fractions. An additional reaction combines ethene with water to produce ethanol. The ethanol produced is condensed to form a liquid and the unreacted ethene is recycled.

Physical properties of alcohol

1.     It is a liquid at room conditions.

2.     It is colourless.

3.     It has a sharp smell.

4.     It is completely miscible with water.

5.     It has a low boiling point.

6.     It is highly volatile.

Chemical properties of alcohol

1.     Combustion

Ethanol is a very flammable substance. Complete combustion of ethanol produces carbon dioxide and water.

2.     Oxidation reaction occurs when a substance combines with oxygen.

3.     Dehydration involves the removal of water from a compound.

Uses of alcohols

Fossil fuels
 -  they burn very cleanly, producing only carbon dioxide and water.  Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel as it can be made from renewable sources such as sugar cane.  

Perfumes
-  ethanol is the least toxic of the alcohols it is used in perfumes to stop the plant and animal extracts from going off.  

Solvent
-  ethanol is the safest of the alcohols it is often used to dissolve chemicals that are insoluble in water. Examples include perfumes, cosmetic s and  vegetable essences such as vanilla extract.

Cleaner
-  to get rid of bacteria and oil and also in mouth wash.

Antiseptic
-  alcohol is safer for use on the skin, because it works at a lower concentration (65-80 percent)

(Antiseptic)

Sedative
-  preparing patients for surgery

Soap

Soap is being used wisely almost by every person in every part of the world. Every day we have a shower and we use this foamy little bar called as soap. When walking through a store, or even while watching television, we can notice that there are several different kinds of soap. They come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and colours.

Definition of soap:

Soap is a substance used for washing and cleaning purposes, consisting of a mixture of sodium or potassium salts of naturally occurring fatty acids. The reaction produces sodium salts of these fatty acids, which improve the cleaning process by making water better able to lift away greasy stains from skin, hair, clothes, and just about anything else. Soaps often contain colouring matter and perfume and act by emulsifying grease and lowering the surface tension of water, so that it more readily penetrates open materials such as textiles. 

Chemistry of soap:

Soap is formed when fat and sodium hydroxide reacts to form glycerol and a sodium salt of fatty acids. The fatty acid salt molecule has a long chain hydrophobic (water hating) hydrocarbon tail at one end and a hydrophilic (water loving) head at the other end. The carbon chain of the soap molecule is lipophilic, that it is generally attracted to organic compounds, while the ionic end of sodium or potassium is hydrophilic. Hence, the molecule is simultaneously active for both fatty acid and water. Fats are isolated from plants and animals. The properties such as solubility relate to their chemical structures. Fats are heated with a strong base to convert them into soaps. In making soap, triglycerides in fat or oils are heated in the presence of a strong alkali base such as sodium hydroxide, producing three molecules of soap for every molecule of glycerol. This process is called saponification.

Action of soap:

It is very difficult to wash an oil spot out of clothing with plain water, because oil is a hydrocarbon that does not dissolve in water. As everyone knows that oil and water do not mix, so that oil adheres even more strongly to clothing in the presence of water. However, when soap is added to the plain water, the hydrophilic end is attracted to water molecules while, at the same time, the hydrophobic end is attracted to oil and grease molecules. When grease or oil is mixed with a soap- water solution, the soap molecules work as a bridge between polar water molecules and non-polar oil molecules. If the oil is on a surface such as an article of clothing, the soap will form micelles and trap the fats within the micelle. Since the micelle is soluble in water, it can easily be washed away.

Preparation of DIY Body wash and Liquid Hand soap:

To make our own body wash and liquid hand soap with just only three easily find-able ingredients.

Ingredients needed:

• (8 ounce) bar of Castile soap (Pre de Provence, Dr. Bronner's, etc...)
• 1 gallon distilled water. 
• 2 tablespoons vegetable glycerin

Steps:

1. Bring the water to a boil in a large non-reactive pot (stainless steel or glass). Grate the bar of soap on a metal box grater.
2. Add the soap shavings and vegetable glycerin to the boiling water, stirring frequently, until the soap shavings are completely dissolved into the water. 
3. Remove the pan from the heat, cover tightly, and let rest undisturbed overnight or for at least 8 hours.
4. After it has rested, break up with an egg beater or with a hand mixer until smooth. If it is too solid, warm over the heat again, add a little distilled water and let cool again to test the consistency. 
5. Repeat until you reach the desired viscosity for your soap.
6. Put a funnel into the now empty distilled water jug and ladle the soap into the jug. Ladle any extra soap into empty hand soap bottles or jars with tight fitting lids.
7. Use like you normally use body wash or liquid hand soap.

Use Of Soap:

• Turn screws more easily by dabbing it onto the threads.
• Keep our clothes fresh. Place bars of soap in closets, drawers, suitcases, and bins where we store our clothing. It'll also repel bugs and prevent musty odors.
• Remove stains from fabric. Rub a damp bar of white soap over stains, and then wash the clothes according to the manufacturer's instructions. For more difficult stains, use a scrub brush or old toothbrush after applying the soap. This works especially well for grease and make-up.
• Loosen stuck or rusty zippers by sliding some bar soap up & down the zipper.
• Household bug repellent: mix soap and water and place in a spray bottle and spray around your home to rid your house of spiders and bugs.

Organic food – Honey

According to the definition of oxford dictionary, honey is a sweet, sticky- yellowish brown fluid made by bees and other insects from nectar collected from flowers.

(Chemical formula/ structure of honey)

Honey is the composition of carbohydrates, water and quite a big amount of other components. Honey contains most sugar in it. It is about 95 percent of it’s dry weight. Honey is the combination of fructose and glucose which became sucrose. The acidity content in the honey is very low which is most added by bees which is not formed itself originally. Honey always exist as buffer as it will not change it’s pH due to the addition of small amount of acids or bases.

How honey formed

Usually honeybees use nectar to make honey. Honey is the composition of some complex sugars and water. Nectar is a high sugar content liquid that produced by flower. Honeybees will store the honey in their ‘honey stomach’ and pass it to the other worker bees the nectar. The bees will breakdown the nectar into simple sugars with enzymes by chewing it. The bees will then dry the nectar by ‘fanning’ their wings. The honey will be sealed by wax until it is ready to be eaten once it is gooey enough as the food storage of bees.

 Ways to use honey ( In Food or Drink)

1. Spread it on toast or bread as breakfast or snack.
2. Use it as part of a salad dressing by mixing it with some Balsamic vinegar and olive oil.
3. Applying it on the face as honey facial.
4. Apply it on burned area to relieve pain and act as anti- microbial to prevent infection.
5. Use it on the hair to do hair treatment.

Raw honey vs Processed honey

Honey should be counted as one of the best foods in nature. One ounce of it contains approximately 20 vitamins, 18 amino acids, 16 minerals and a ton of antioxidants. Besides that, it is antibacterial or any fungi in it’s raw state. However, the nutritional value of honey is reducing when it is being processed. One of the biggest factor is by heating it. The nutrition in the honey has destroyed during the process. Therefore, honey with the label raw or pesticide- free is always the best choice for customer. 

Group member

Chia Casie       1001231344
Hee Hui Peng  1001231611
Goh Soke Yi    1001232295
Khaw Yi Jia     1001232824